The Toulmin approach is another way to view the mechanism of logical thinking. This model is less restricted than the syllogism and allows for the important elements of probability, support, or proof of the reader’s objections ‘ premise and rebuttal. This approach sees claims as going from agreed facts or evidence (data) to an inference (claim) through an assertion (warrant) forming a fair relationship between the two.
The warrant is often implied in arguments, and to be acceptable, as is the unstated premise in the syllogism. The author may cause a big assumption to be expected. Qualifiers like probably, possibly, doubtless, and surely show the degree of certainty of the conclusion; refutational terms like unless the writer allows objections to be anticipated.
FALLACIES: There must be both a plausible and real deductive stated. A real argument is based on well-backed assumptions that are generally accepted. Learn to distinguish between fact and opinion (based on personal preferences) (based on verifiable data). A valid argument fits a pattern of reasonable thought.
Fallacies are flaws in (truth) and logic (validity) assumptions. They may result from misuse or misrepresentation of evidence, relying on defective premises or omitting a necessary premise, or distorting the issues. Some of the major forms of fallacies are as follows:
Non-Sequitur: A statement that does not logically follow from what has just been said; in other words, a conclusion that does not follow from the premises.
Hasty generalization: A generalization based on insufficient evidence or exceptional or biased evidence.
Ad Hominem: Question the individual posing a question rather than dealing with the problem itself objectively.Â
Bandwagon: An argument that says, “Everyone does and does and believes that, so you should.” Red Herring: Dodging the real issue by drawing attention to an irrelevant issue.
Claiming that there are only two options when there are more than two.
False Analogy: The belief that in some cases, if two events are the same, they have to be unique.
Equivocation: An inference that in two different senses is wrongly dependent on the use of a word.
Slippery Slope: The belief that it will be the first step in a downward spiral if one element is approved.
Oversimplification: A comment or point that leaves relevant issues out.
Pleading for Question: A statement reaffirming the point that has just been made. Such a statement is conditional in that a point mentioned in the assumption is taken as an inference.
